1. Limit the Scope
It is vital to set the parameters for your research as early as possible. If your assignment is very specific, you may not need to do this step. However, your assignment may leave room for choice: "Write a 2000-word essay on an aspect of Augustine's theology." If so, you will have to limit yourself. To do so, use questions rather than phrases. Answering specific questions is easier than writing about an abstract word or phrase. Instead of thinking in terms of "Augustine on religion and government," ask one or more of the following questions: "Under what circumstances did Augustine believe the government should coerce people to practice a certain religion?" "Why did Augustine believe that way?" "What were the historical consequences of his belief?" Your paper will answer your question(s).
2. Gather Sources
Once you have set the boundaries of your research, you need to collect information. Your material will be divided into primary sources and secondary sources. A primary source is any communication by the subject of your paper. Augustine's books, sermons, and letters would all be primary sources for a paper written about him. A secondary source is any communication about your subject but by someone else. Normally, your research will focus on primary sources. Secondary sources are good for putting primary sources in context, understanding difficult passages, and providing support for your arguments.
A. Primary sources
For a complete list of Augustine's works, see the chronological list or the categorical list. A list of print editions of Augustine's works in both Latin and English is available in the "Augustine" entry of Medieval Philosophers (Vol. 115 of Dictionary of Literary Biography). The Past Masters electronic database contains a complete critical Latin edition (CAG) of Augustine's works and many volumes of the New City Press translation. Older online translations can be found at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
For brief information on individual works, see the entries in Augustine Through the Ages [Villanova University access] or in another encyclopedia. If your paper is topical, you will likely find specific passages mentioned in the indexes or footnotes of secondary sources. Follow these back to the primary sources.
B. Secondary sources
Choosing secondary sources wisely can be challenging. Your sources should consist of books, dissertations, theses, essays, peer-reviewed journal articles, and/or academic conference presentations. Information from websites should be used only if maintained by a recognized scholar or educational institution. A bibliographical index is available at Finding Augustine.
You may find many more sources than you can read. If so, you will have to choose the best sources for your paper. Distinguish the best ones according to the following criteria: (1) well-respected author or well-received work; (2) up-to-date relative to the most similar sources; (3) directly relevant to your topic. When you first come across a source, you may not know whether it meets those criteria. Look for works listed in annotated bibliographies on your subject. Also, encyclopedia entries usually end with a bibliography. For books, look up scholarly book reviews. They will tell you whether the work is well-received and whether it bears directly on your topic.
If your library doesn't have access to a book you need, try inter-library loan. For dissertations, see Dissertations and Theses Full Text by Proquest. Journal articles and book reviews can be found in databases such as EBSCO's ATLA Religion Database, Philosopher's Index by Proquest, and JSTOR. The Philosophy Documentation Center maintains an especially large collection of material on Augustine. Augustinian Studies and Augustiniana are scholarly journals devoted specifically to Augustine's life, thought, and influence.
C. Citing Sources
As you find sources, you will need to compose a bibliography. Before you begin, you should know what style (MLA, Chicago, APA) your course requires. Programs such as RefWorks or EndNote can store bibliographic information for you and organize it into different formats. The initial time invested to learn them will be well worth it.
Augustine's works fall under the category of ancient texts. They have been numbered internally so that it's easy to refer to a specific passage despite differences among editions and translations. (For example, one cites the Bible as John 3:16, not page 1084). Example of citing Augustine
3. Mine Information
A. Analytical Reading
Analytical (or critical, or close) reading differs from casual reading. The goal of analytical reasoning is to understand and then to evaluate an author's argument. This includes identifying an author's purpose in writing, his or her thesis, the supporting evidence, and the chain of argumentation connecting evidence and thesis. Visit the analytical reading page for more information.
B. Organizing Notes
As you learn new information, you must keep it organized. One time-tested method is the notecard system. Each notecard consists of three elements: 1) a single piece of information, 2) a heading that corresponds to a section of your paper, and 3) an abbreviated source citation. After you have collected your information, you then organize the cards by heading.
Today, computers are generally more efficient than notecards. A Word file or a OneNote folder can hold all your information. You can enter data directly into the correct heading or sub-folder. Copy-paste means you may not even have to re-type everything. The three elements are still necessary, though. Every piece of information should fall under a heading and contain a source citation.
4. Write the Paper
It is vital to set the parameters for your research as early as possible. If your assignment is very specific, you may not need to do this step. However, your assignment may leave room for choice: "Write a 2000-word essay on an aspect of Augustine's theology." If so, you will have to limit yourself. To do so, use questions rather than phrases. Answering specific questions is easier than writing about an abstract word or phrase. Instead of thinking in terms of "Augustine on religion and government," ask one or more of the following questions: "Under what circumstances did Augustine believe the government should coerce people to practice a certain religion?" "Why did Augustine believe that way?" "What were the historical consequences of his belief?" Your paper will answer your question(s).
2. Gather Sources
Once you have set the boundaries of your research, you need to collect information. Your material will be divided into primary sources and secondary sources. A primary source is any communication by the subject of your paper. Augustine's books, sermons, and letters would all be primary sources for a paper written about him. A secondary source is any communication about your subject but by someone else. Normally, your research will focus on primary sources. Secondary sources are good for putting primary sources in context, understanding difficult passages, and providing support for your arguments.
A. Primary sources
For a complete list of Augustine's works, see the chronological list or the categorical list. A list of print editions of Augustine's works in both Latin and English is available in the "Augustine" entry of Medieval Philosophers (Vol. 115 of Dictionary of Literary Biography). The Past Masters electronic database contains a complete critical Latin edition (CAG) of Augustine's works and many volumes of the New City Press translation. Older online translations can be found at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
For brief information on individual works, see the entries in Augustine Through the Ages [Villanova University access] or in another encyclopedia. If your paper is topical, you will likely find specific passages mentioned in the indexes or footnotes of secondary sources. Follow these back to the primary sources.
B. Secondary sources
Choosing secondary sources wisely can be challenging. Your sources should consist of books, dissertations, theses, essays, peer-reviewed journal articles, and/or academic conference presentations. Information from websites should be used only if maintained by a recognized scholar or educational institution. A bibliographical index is available at Finding Augustine.
You may find many more sources than you can read. If so, you will have to choose the best sources for your paper. Distinguish the best ones according to the following criteria: (1) well-respected author or well-received work; (2) up-to-date relative to the most similar sources; (3) directly relevant to your topic. When you first come across a source, you may not know whether it meets those criteria. Look for works listed in annotated bibliographies on your subject. Also, encyclopedia entries usually end with a bibliography. For books, look up scholarly book reviews. They will tell you whether the work is well-received and whether it bears directly on your topic.
If your library doesn't have access to a book you need, try inter-library loan. For dissertations, see Dissertations and Theses Full Text by Proquest. Journal articles and book reviews can be found in databases such as EBSCO's ATLA Religion Database, Philosopher's Index by Proquest, and JSTOR. The Philosophy Documentation Center maintains an especially large collection of material on Augustine. Augustinian Studies and Augustiniana are scholarly journals devoted specifically to Augustine's life, thought, and influence.
C. Citing Sources
As you find sources, you will need to compose a bibliography. Before you begin, you should know what style (MLA, Chicago, APA) your course requires. Programs such as RefWorks or EndNote can store bibliographic information for you and organize it into different formats. The initial time invested to learn them will be well worth it.
Augustine's works fall under the category of ancient texts. They have been numbered internally so that it's easy to refer to a specific passage despite differences among editions and translations. (For example, one cites the Bible as John 3:16, not page 1084). Example of citing Augustine
3. Mine Information
A. Analytical Reading
Analytical (or critical, or close) reading differs from casual reading. The goal of analytical reasoning is to understand and then to evaluate an author's argument. This includes identifying an author's purpose in writing, his or her thesis, the supporting evidence, and the chain of argumentation connecting evidence and thesis. Visit the analytical reading page for more information.
B. Organizing Notes
As you learn new information, you must keep it organized. One time-tested method is the notecard system. Each notecard consists of three elements: 1) a single piece of information, 2) a heading that corresponds to a section of your paper, and 3) an abbreviated source citation. After you have collected your information, you then organize the cards by heading.
Today, computers are generally more efficient than notecards. A Word file or a OneNote folder can hold all your information. You can enter data directly into the correct heading or sub-folder. Copy-paste means you may not even have to re-type everything. The three elements are still necessary, though. Every piece of information should fall under a heading and contain a source citation.
4. Write the Paper